to their origins. In other words the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. 8. grammatical meaning（语法意义）: Grammatical meanings refer to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.
9. conceptual meaning（概念意义）: Conceptual meaning(also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.
10. associative meaning（关联意义）: Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate.
11. connotative meaning（内涵意义）: Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.
12. stylistic meaning（文体意义）: Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. 13. affective meaning（情感意义）: Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. 14. collocative meaning（搭配意义）: This meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it’s that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. 论述问答题：.
1. Cite one example to illustrate what grammatical meaning（语法意义） is.
答：Grammatical meanings refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words（nouns,' verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms（forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting）.
2. What?s the difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning?
答：Unlike lexical meaning, different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning. On the other hand, the same word may have different grammatical meanings, functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning whereas content words have both meanings, and lexical meaning in particular. Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning. It?s known that grammatical meaning surfaces only in use. But lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the notion that the word conveys. 3. How many types of motivation（理据） are there in English? 答：There are four types of motivation:
1). Onomatopoeical motivation. E.g.cuckoo, squeak, quack.etc. 2). Morphological motivation, e.g. airmail, reading-lamp, etc.
3). Semantic motivation, e.g. the mouth of the river, the foot of the mountain. 4). Etymological motivation, e.g. pen, laconic, etc.
4. The “pen” is mightier than the “sword”. Explain what “pen” and “sword”mean respectively using the theory of motivation.
答：1). Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
2). Semantic motivation, one of the four major types of motivation, explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.
3). In this sentence, “pen??reminds one of the tool to write with, thus suggesting writing; “sword” reminds one of the weapon to fight with, thus suggesting war. 5. ①.Women are flowers. ②. Women are tigers.
Study the above sentences. Analyze grammatical meaning of “women”, conceptual meaning and connotative meaning（内涵意义） in each sentence.
答：1). “Women” in the two sentences have same grammatical meanings and conceptual meanings. Their grammatical meanings are: they are all plural nouns and subjects in the sentences. Their conceptual meaning : adult female human being.
2). In sentence①, the connotative meaning of “women”: beautiful and lovely. In sentence②, the connotative meaning of “women”: fierce and malicious.
Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field
重点知识锦集：
1. A word which is related to other words is related to them in sense, hence sense relations.（语义关系）
2. Polysemy（多义关系） is a common feature peculiar to all natural Languages.
3. Two approaches to Polysemy are diachronic approach and synchronic approach.（历时角度和共时角度）
4. The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as radiation and concatenation.（辐射型和连锁型）
5. Radiation describes a process where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning.
6. Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the proceeding one like chains.
7. Radiation and concatenation are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy.
8. Based on the degree of similarity, hononyms fall into three classes: perfect homonyms（完全同形同音异义关系）, homographs（同形异义词） and homophones（同音异义词）.
9. Of the three types: perfect homonyms, homographs, homophones, homopnones（同音异义词） constitute the largest number and are most common.
10. There are various sources of homonyms:change in sound and spelling, borrowing.
11. In dictionaries, a polysemant（多义词） has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.
12. English as a highly developed language is known for its copious stock of synonyms. 13. Synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as in part of speech.
14. Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.（绝对同义词和相对同义词）
15. The most important source of synonyms is perhaps borrowing. 16. Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.
17. There is an absolute opposition between contradictory terms.
18. In the case of relative terms, the opposition is only relational, what is applicable to contradictory terms may not be applicable to the relative terms.
19. Antonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of words.
20. Antonyms（反义词） are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought, often for the sake of contrast. 21. In hyponymy, the general words the superordinate（上义词） terms and the more specific ones are the subordinate（下义词）terms.
22. In production, knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness and concreteness（生动，准确，具体）.
23. According to Trier?s vision of fields, the whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields. Each semantic field consists many subfields.
24. Words in each field are semantically related and define one another.
25. It?s a general belief that the meaning does not exist in the word itself, but it rather spreads over the neighbouring words, because the neighbouring words identify the semantic field and help pin down the meaning. 26. The semantic field（语义场） of the same concept may not have the same members in different Languages.
27. The origins（起源） of the words are a key factor in distinguishing homonyms from polysemants. 名词解释：
1. diachronic approach（历时角度）: From the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word.
2. synchronic approach（共时角度）: Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time, say, Modern English. 3. radiation（辐射型）: Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning. 4. concatenation（连锁型）: Concatenation, meaning ‘linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.
5. homonymy（同形同音异义关系）: Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 6.perfect homonyms（同形同音异义词）: Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.
7. homographs（同形异义词）: Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.
8. homophones（同音异义词）: Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.
9. synonyms（同义词）: Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.
10.absolute synonyms（绝对同义词）: Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, both in grammatical meaning and lexical
meaning, including conceptual meaning and associative meanings.
11.relative synonyms（相对同义词）: Relatve synonyms also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.
12.antonymy（反义关系）: Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 13.hyponymy（上下义关系）: Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms. 论述问答题：
1. What?s the fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants? Try to explain it.
答：Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creats the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to the different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e.homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree. On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another.
2. Try to point out the main sources of synonyms（同义词）. 1). Borrowing. The most important source is perhaps borrowing. 2). Dialects and regional English.
3). Figurative and euphemistic use of words. 4). Coincidence with idiomatic expressions.
3. What’s the discrimination（区别） of synonyms?
答：The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation, connotation, and application.
1). Difference in denotation（外延意义上不同）. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning. Some words have a wider range of meaning than others.
2). Difference in connotation（内涵意义上不同）. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness.
3). Difference in application（应用上不同）. Many words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns.
4. Try to illustrate the three major types of Antonyms with examples.
答：1). Contradictory terms（矛盾反义词）. These antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other. In other words, if one of the pair is true, then the other cannot be. For example: dead and alive; boy and girl; present and absent. Another character of this category is that such antonyms are non-gradable. 2). Contrary terms（对立反义词）. Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale
running between two poles or extremes. Antonyms such as: rich and poor; old and young; big and small represesnt two points at both ends of the pole. The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.
3). Relative terms（关系反义词）. This third type consists of relational opposites such as: parent and child; husband and wife; employer and employee. The pairs of words indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them can not be used without suggesting the other. 5. Can you point out some of the characteristics of Antonyms?
1). Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition. In a Language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.
2). A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.
3). Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively. In many pairs we find that one member is more specific(marked terms) than the other and the meaning of the specific is included in that of the general(unmarked terms).
4). Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.
6. What’s the fundamental difference between the processes of radiation（辐射型） and concatenation（连锁型）? Illustrate your point.
答：Radiation describes a process where each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning, concatenation describs a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. But the two are closely related , being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.
7. Use examples to illustrate the similarity and difference between absolute synonyms(绝对同义词) and relative synonyms（相对同义词） 答：1). Absolute synonyms(complete synonyms) are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual meaning and associative meanings. Synonyms of this type are interchangeable in every way. Absolute synonyms are rare in natural languages and restricted to highly specialized vocabulary, such as scarlet-fever/scarlatina in medicine.
2). Relative synonyms(near-synonyms) are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. For example, to change a thing is to put another thing in lts place; to alter a thing is to make it different from which it was before.
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning
重点知识锦集：
1. Extension(词义扩大) of meaning is also known as generalization. 2. Narrowing of meaning is also called specialization.
3. Of the modes of word-meaning change, extension and narrowing are by far the most common. 4. Degradation（降格） or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation.
5. The degraded meaning “sexual desire ”of the word “lust ”comes from its old meaning “ pleasure”.