英语国家概况复习笔记
Chapter 1 Land and People 英国的国土与人民
Different Names for Britain and its Parts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分
1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名称:不列颠群岛,大不列颠和英格兰.
2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称:大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国. 3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands—Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.
不列颠群岛由两个大岛［大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛］及成千上万个小岛组成.
4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.大不列颠岛上有三个政区:英格兰,苏格兰和威尔士. ①England is in the southern part of Great Britain.It is the largest, most populous section. 位于大不列颠岛南部,是最大,人口最稠密的地区.
②Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh. 苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部.它有三大自然区：北部高地,中部低地及南部山陵.首府：爱丁堡. ③Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff 威尔士位于大不列颠的西部.首府：加的夫
④Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast. 北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域.首府：贝尔法斯特
5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain.Member nations are joined together economically and have certain trading agreements.The Commonwealth has no special powers.The decision to become a member of the Commonwealth is left to each nation. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.英联邦是一个自由联合体,由曾是英国殖民地而现在已经独立的国家构成.成员国之间实行经济合作,有一定的贸易协议.英联邦没有特别的权利,是否参加英联邦由各成员国自己决定.它成立于1931年,到1991年止已有50个成员国.
Chapter 2 The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066) 英国的起源
1.Arrival and settlement of the Celts At about 700 BC the Celts began to arrive in Britain and kept coming until the arrival of the
Romans.They may come originally from eastern and central Europe,now France,Belgium and southern Germany.约公元前700年,凯尔特人来到不列颠岛并一直陆续到来直到罗马人的入侵.他们可能源自东欧和中欧,即现在的法国,比利时和德国南部. They came in three main waves:the Gaels~about 600 BC;the Brythons~about 400 BC;the Belgae~about 150 BC.凯尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮:第一次是约公元前600年的盖尔人;第二次是约公元前400年的布立吞人;第三次是约公元前150年的贝尔盖人. The Celtic tribes are the ancestors of the Highland Scots,the Irish and the Welsh,and their languages are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic.凯尔特人是山地苏格兰人,爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先,他们的语言是威尔士语和盖尔语的基础. The Celts’ religion was Druidism. 凯尔特人的宗教为德鲁伊德教. The Belgae were the most industrious and vigorous of the Celtic tribes.贝尔盖人是最勤奋,最精力充沛的. The Celts were practised farmers. 凯尔特人是有经验的农民.
2.Basis of modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons现代英国人的基础:盎格鲁—萨克逊 (446-871) In the mid-5th century Jutes,Saxons, and Angles came to Britain.They were three Teutonic tribes.The Jutes,who fished and farmed in Jutland(now southern Denmark),came to Britain first.Then the Saxons came.They came from northern Germany,established their kingdoms in Essex, Sussex and Wessex. In the second half of the 6th century,the Angles who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. 五世纪中叶,朱特人,撒克逊人和盎格鲁人来到不列颠岛.这是三支日耳曼部落.居住在朱特兰岛(现丹麦南部)从事打渔农耕的朱特人先到达不列颠;接着是撒克逊人,他们来自德国北部,在埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国;六世纪后半叶,同样来自德国北部把自己名字给了英国人的盎格鲁人,在东盎格利亚,麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居.
Heptarchy:During the Anglo-Saxon’s time,Britain was divided into many kingdoms,among which there were seven principal kingdoms of Kent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,East Anglia,Mercia and Northumbria.They were given the name for Heptarchy. 在盎格鲁-撒克逊时期,英国被划分为许多王国,其中有七个主要王国:肯特,埃塞克斯,苏塞克斯,威塞克斯,东盎格利亚,麦西亚和诺森伯利来.他们被合称为七王国.
The Anglo-Saxon tribes were constantly at war with one another,each trying to get the upper hand,so that the kingdoms were often broken up and often pieced together again. 盎格鲁-撒克逊部落之间不断交战,彼此都想占上风,因此王国总是分了合,合了又分
The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. 盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国.
Although the Anglo-Saxons were ferocious people,they laid the foundations of the English state.Firstly,they divided the country into shires;Secondly,they devised the narrow-strip,three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century;Thirdly,they also established the manorial system.Finally,they created the Witan(council/meeting of wisemen)to advise the king,the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today. 虽然盎格鲁-撒克逊人是凶猛的民族,但他们为英国国家的形成打下了基础.首先他们把国家划分为郡;其次他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪;他们还建立了采邑制;最后他们还创立了议会(贤人会议),向国王提供建议,这是现存的枢密院的基础.
3.The Viking and Danish invasions The Norwegian Vikings and the Danes attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century.The Danes gained control of the north and east of England—the Danelaw.从8世纪末起,挪威海盗和丹麦人就不断袭击英格兰各地方.丹麦人控制英格兰北部和东部丹麦法区. After Alfred’s death,his successors reconquered the Danelaw.King Ethelred the Unready tried paying the invaders to stay away.But the Danes didn’t go away but invade again. 亚尔弗雷德死后,他的继任者们重新征服了丹麦地区.\未准备好者\埃塞尔雷德国王进贡给丹麦人以免被侵略,但丹麦人又再度进犯. After Ethelred’s death,Canute,the Danish leader was made English king in 1016.He proved to be a wise ruler.After his death in 1035,his sons Harold and Hardicanute reigned successively.After Hardicanute’s death the succession passed to the successor Edward the Confessor. 埃塞尔雷德死后,丹麦首领喀奴特在1016年成为了英国国王.他是位英明的通知者.1035年他死后,他的儿子哈罗德和哈迪喀奴特先后统治王国.哈迪喀奴特死后,王位传给了\忏悔者\爱德华.
4.King Alfred and his contributions亚尔弗雷德国王和他所做出的贡献(849-899) ①Alfred was the king of Wessex and defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879亚尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王.他打败了丹麦人,并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议;②He founded a strong fleet and is known as “the father of the British navy”他因为建立了强大舰队,而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世;③He reorganized the Saxon army,making it more efficient他改组了撒克逊军队,使之更为高效;④He is said to have taught himself Latin and translated a Latin book into English据说他自学了拉丁语并将一本拉丁语书译成英语⑤He encouraged learning in others,established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great”他鼓励向他人求知并修建学校,并且制订法律制度.
5.The Norman Conquest and its consequences诺曼征服及其影响(1066) It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to
William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, William defeated Harold in the battle of Hastings.On Christmas Day William was crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey. 据说爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉,但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王.公元1066年10月,在哈斯丁斯战役中威廉打败了哈罗德军队.圣诞节这天在威斯敏斯特大教堂,威廉被加冕为英格兰国王. The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government.The Norman Conquest ended the English history of being invaded, the feudal system was completely established in England . Relations with the Continent were opened, and civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced.The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts. 公元1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件.征服者威廉没收了几乎所有土地,将其分发给他的诺曼追随者.他用强大的诺曼政府取代软弱的撒克逊人统治.诺曼征服结束了被侵略的英国历史,英格兰完全确立了封建制度:扩展了与欧洲大陆的关系;文明和商业都得到发展;引进了诺曼—法国文化、语言、举止和建筑.教会与罗马的联系更为密切,教会法庭从世俗法庭中单独分离出来.
Chapter 3 The Shaping of the Nation 英国的形成（公元1066-1381）
1.England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror在威廉统治下的英国封建制度 ①Under William,the feudal system
in England was completely established在威廉统治下,英国的封建制度得到完全确立;②In this system,the King owned all the land personally根据此制度,国王拥有全国所有土地;③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land’s produce威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族,条件是贵族保证服役和交租;④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country,so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king贵族的这些地产分散于各处,这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王;⑤The barons parceled out his land to the lesser nobles,knights and freemen,also in return for goods and services贵族又把土地分配给小贵族,骑士和自由民,同样要他们交租和服役;⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs在封建等级底层的是农奴;⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance,not only to their immediate lord,but also to the king英国封建制独有的特色就是,无论是土地承租人还是二佃户,都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主,而且要效忠于国王.
William replaced the Witan with the Grand Council. 威廉用大议会取代了贤人会议. In order to have a reliable record of all his lands,his tenants and their possessions,William sent his clerks to compile a property record known as Domesday Book,which was completed in 1086. 为了使所有的土地,佃户和他们的财产记录可靠,威廉派官员编了一本财产清册,称为?末日审判书? 2.Contents and the significance of the Great Charter?大宪章?的内容及意义 Also known as the Magna Carta,Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons.?大宪章?是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的. It consists of 63 clauses. Its important provisions are as follows?大宪章?共有63条:①no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council没有大议会批准不得征税;②no freeman should be arrested,imprisoned,or deprived of his property except by the law of the land除依照法律,不得随意逮捕,拘禁自由民,不依照土地法不得剥夺其财产;③the Church should possess all its rights,together with freedom of elections教会拥有的权利和选举自由不受侵犯;④London and other towns should retain their ancient rights and privileges伦敦和其它城市应保留其古老的权利和特权;⑤there should be the same weight and measures throughout the country全国应统一度量衡. Although the Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties,it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationship between the Crown and the barons,a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king.The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king,keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.尽管长期普遍认为?大宪章?是英国自由的基础,但它只是国王与贵族之间的封建与法律关系,保证教会的自由,限制国王的权力.?大宪章?的精神是限制王权,置王权于封建法律的约束下.
3.The origins of the English Parliament英国议会的起源 In 1258,the barons,under Simon de Montfort,forced Henry Ⅲ and his son Prince Edward to swear to accept the Provisions of Oxford.Later,Henry refused to confirm to the Provisions of Oxford,thus a civil war brake out between the king’s supporters and the baronial army led by Simon de Montfort. 1258年,贵族们在西蒙?德?孟福尔的领导下迫使国王和他的儿子爱德华王子宣誓接受\牛津协定\亨利拒绝批准牛津协定,国王的支持者和西蒙?德?孟福尔领导的封建主组成的军队之间爆发了内战.
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265,Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council,together with two knights from each country and two citizens from each town.,a meeting which has seen as the earliest parliament.It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Common as a parliament. 大议会是当今英国议会的原型.1265年,西门德孟福尔召开大议会,各县有两名骑士,各镇有两名市民参加,此次会议被看作是最早的议会.大议会发展到后来演变成议会.分为上议院和下议院
Its main role was to offer advice,not to make decisions.There were still no elections,no parties,and the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords. 其作用是咨询而非决定,也没有选举和政党.议会的最重要的部分是上议院
4.The Hundred Years' War with France and its consequences百年战争及其结果 When Edward III claimed the French Crown but the French refused to recognize,the war broke out. 爱德华三世宣布要继承法国王位,但法国人民拒绝承认,于是引发了百年战争. The Hundred Years’ War with France refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453.The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy of Aquitaine,while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes. 百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争.战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素.领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国阿奎丹大片的公爵领地有密切关系,随着法国国王势力日增,他们日益渴望占领这片从他们领土内被分割出去的土地.经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关.弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口地,但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王.其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人,以及不断觉醒的民族意识. When the war ended,Calais was the only part of France that still in the hands of English. 战争结束的时候只有加来港还被英军占领. Consequences:The expulsion of the English from France is regarded as a blessing for both countries:had they remained,the superior size and wealth of France would certainly have hindered the development of a separate English national identity,while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory. 战争的结果:把英国人赶出了法国对两个国家都是幸事:若英国人继续留在法国,那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍英国作为一个独立民族的发展;而法国如被外国势力占领了大量的领土,其民族特性的发展也要长期受阻.
HenryⅤrenewed the war in 1415 and won a crushing victory at Argencourt.He was recognized to the French throne in 1420.After his death,the French,encouraged by Joan of Arc,finally drove the English out of France. 亨利五世在1415年重新发动战争.在阿根科特战役中大胜.他在1420年成为法国国王.亨利死后,法国人民在圣女贞德的鼓舞下,最终把英军驱逐出法国.
5.Consequences of the Black Death黑死病的影响 The Black Death was the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century.It swept through England in the summer of 1348 without warning and,most importantly,without any cure.It reduced England’s population from four million to two million(about one half and one third of the population was killed) by the end of the 14th century. 黑死病是现代名称,指老鼠身上的跳蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫引起的传染性疾病.14世纪传播了到欧洲.1348年夏天横扫全英国,事先毫无预兆,而更重要的是无药可救.英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万. The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching.As a result of the plague,much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour.Landowners tended to change from arable to sheep-farming,which required less labour.The surviving peasants had better bargainning power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour.So some landlords,unable or unwilling to pay higher wages,tried to force peasants back into serfdom.In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace. 黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远.鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏.地主只得把耕地改成对人力需求较少的牧场.幸存的农民处于有利的可以讨价还价的地位,他们从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪.
Chapter 4 Transition to the Modern Age 向现代英国的过渡(1455-1688)
1.The nature and consequences of the Wars of the Roses玫瑰战争 The name Wars of the Roses was, in fact, coined by a 19th century
novelist Sir Walter Scott.This was a war between the rich and ambitious nobles. 玫瑰战争这个词是19世纪的大作家瓦尔特?斯考特创造的.这是一场富人和野心勃勃的贵族之间的战争. It was referred to these battles between the great House of Lancaster, symbolized by the red rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white,from 1455 to 1485.Although the Wars of the Roses were waged intermittently for thirty years,ordinary people were little affected.Feudalism received its death blow.No less than 80 nobles of royal blood were killed in the wars.The great medieval nobility was much weakened and discredited.The king’s power became supreme. 它是指从1455年到1485年,以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争.虽然玫瑰战争断断续续进行了30年,但普通民众所受影响甚微.封建制度却遭受了致命打击,不少于80位皇室血统的贵族阵亡.中世纪的贵族势力被大大削弱,名誉扫地.至此,国王的权利变得至高无上.
After the wars,king Henry Tudor replaced king Richard Ⅲ to rule England. 玫瑰战争后,亨利?都铎取代了理查德三世统治英国.
2.Henry Ⅷ and the English Reformation亨利八世和英国的宗教改革 Henry Ⅷ was above all responsible for the religious reform of the Church亨利八世是宗教改革的最重要的责任者 .There were 3 main causes:①a desire for change and reform in the Church had been growing for many years and now,encouraged by the success of Martin Luther,many people believed its time had come期望教会改革已有多年,现在又受马丁?路德成功的鼓舞,许多人认为时机已到;②the privilege and wealth of the clergy were also resented人们痛恨教职人员的特权和财富;③Henry needs money亨利需要钱. The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon because she could not produce a male heir for him.But the Pope refused to annul his marriage.Henry’s reforms was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings,and past two laws as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England. 改革以争取离婚而开始,以脱离教皇而告终.亨利八世想与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚因为她没有生下男嗣,但是教皇拒绝了.亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系,成立独立的英格兰教会.1529年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系.他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院,因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚.1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性.1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号. The English Reformation had 3 important effects:They stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry’s position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism. 改革的三大影响:亨利的改革强调了君主权力,自然加强了亨利的地位;议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作,自然其重要性也有所加强;他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会,并希望从天主教转向新教.
3.Elizabeth I and Parliament伊莉莎白一世和国会 Generally speaking,Elizabeth was able to work with Parliament,but the relationship with Parliament was often turbulent.Parliament wished its customary right of free speech confirmed in writing;and it wanted to be allowed to start discussion of important questions at will,not by invitation.Elizabeth would not permit either thing.Elizabeth treated 5 questions as personal and private.These were her religion,her marriage,her foreign policy,the succession to the throne and her finance. 伊丽莎白能与议会合作,但与议会的关系经常动荡不安.议会希望以书面形式确认议会按惯例已享有的言论自由,也希望能随意地讨论重大问题,而无需经过女王邀请.伊丽莎白一件也未批准.伊丽莎白把五个问题看作是个人问题,那就是她的宗教,婚姻,对外政策,王位的继承和财产.
4.Elizabeth's religious reform and her foreign policy伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策 Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control.Her religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics. 伊丽莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协.她中断了玛丽女王与罗马建立的关系,恢复了她父亲建立的独立的英格兰教会也就是说她保持天主教的教条及做法,但不受教皇控制.她的宗教和解既不被极端的清教徒所接受,也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain.In 1588,the English navy defeated the Spanish Armada.The destruction of the Spanish Armada showed England’ superiority as a naval power. 近30年的时间,伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀,从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突.通过她从未具体化的联姻,伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系,因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险.1588年,英国海军击败了西班牙舰队.西班牙无敌舰队的灭亡表明了英国作为海上强国的优势.
5.Distinctive features of the English Renaissance英国文艺复兴的特点 In England,the Renaissance began in 1485 and it had 5 characteristics英国的文艺复兴起始与1485年.五个特点:①English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary