第一章 介绍

Applied linguistics运用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.

Descriptive描述性的：if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.

Prescriptive规定性的：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what the should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

Synchronic共时的：the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. synchronic study共时研究: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a synchronic study.

Diachronic 历时的：the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. Diachronic study历时研究: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study. Langue语言：refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Langue is abstract.

Parole言语：refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Parole is concrete.

Competence：(N. Chomsky) defines as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance：defines as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

Design features?

Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 设计特点是指界定性质的人类区别于其他动物的交际系统。 特点：

(1) arbitrariness. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For example: the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. (2) productivity生成性: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

(3) duality双重性：language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels.

(4) displacement移位性：language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

(5) cultural transmission文化的传播: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.

第二章 phonology音系学

phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介.

These three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics发声语音学, auditory phonetics听觉语

音学, and acoustic phonetics声响语音学 respectively.

辅音分类见本子

Phone音素：is a phonetic语音的 unit or segment.

Phoneme音位：is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.

Allophones音位变体：refers to the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. For example [l] and [l]

Phonemic contrast音位对立：phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.

Complementary distribution互补分布：if they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments.

Minimal pair最小对：when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. For examples, pill and bill are a minimal pair.

第三章 morphology形态学

Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.

Derivational morphemes派生词素(do not change grammatical class)：a verb, for example is formed by adding –en to the adjective black, --blacken. –en, -ate,-ic are thus called derivational morphemes, because when they are conjoined to other morphemes(or words)a new word is derived, or formed.

Inflectional morphemes屈折词素：they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.

第四章 syntax 句法学

Syntactic categories句法范畴：a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.

Modifiers修饰语：still another kind of element we have not touched upon so far is modifiers, which specify optionally选择 expressible properties of heads.

第五章 semantics 语义学

Contextualism 语境论: they hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behaviour. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.

Behaviorism行为主义：defines as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.

Sense意义：is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.

Reference所指：means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

Predication述谓结构：in G. Leech’s framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument变元and predicate谓语.

第六章 pragmatics 语用学

Pragmatics: can be defined that it is the study of how speaker of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

Context语境：is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.（various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e. g. knowledge of the language