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Unit 2 Research and Development
研究和开发
Research and development, or R&D as it is commonly referred to, is an activity which is carried out by all sectors of manufacturing industry but its extent varies considerably, as we will see shortly. Let us first understand, or at least get a feel for, what the terms mean. Although the distinction between research and development is not always clear-cut, and there is often considerable overlap, we will attempt to separate them. In simple terms research can be thought of as the activity which produces new ideas and knowledge whereas development is putting those ideas into practice as new process and products. To illustrate this with an example, predicting the structure of a new molecule which would have a specific biological activity and synthesizing it could be seen as research whereas testing it and developing it to the point where it could be marketed as a new drug could be described as the development part.
研究和开发，或通常所称R&D是制造业各个部门都要进行的一项活动。我们马上可以看到，它的内容变化很大。我们首先了解或先感觉一下这个词的含义。尽管研究和开发的定义总是分得不很清楚，而且有许多重叠的部分，我们还是要试着把它们区分开来。简单说来，研究是产生新思想和新知识的活动，而开发则是把这些思想贯彻到实践中得到新工艺和新产品的行为。可以用一个例子来描述这一点，预测一个有特殊生物活性的分子结构并合成它可以看成是研究而测试它并把它发展到可以作为一种新药推向市场这一阶段则看作开发部分。
1. Fundamental Research and Applied Research
In industry the primary reason for carting out R&D is economic and is to strengthen and improve the company’s position and profitability. The purpose of R&D is to generate and provide information and knowledge to reduce uncertainty, solve problems and to provide better data on which management can base decisions. Specific projects cover a wide range of activities and time scales, from a few months to 20 years.
1． 基础研究和应用研究
在工业上进行研究和开发最主要的原因是经济利益方面，是为了加强公司的地位，提高公司的利润。R&D的目的是做出并提供信息和知识以减低不确定性，解决问题，以及向管理层提供更好的数据以便他们能据此做出决定。特别的项目涵盖很大的活动范围和时间范围，从几个月到20年。
We can pick out a number of areas of R&D activity in the following paragraphs but if we were to start with those which were to spring to the mind of the academic, rather than the industrial, chemist then these would be basic, fundamental (background) or exploratory research and the synthesis of new compounds. This is also labeled “blue skies” research.
我们可以在后面的段落里举出大量的R&D活动。但是如果我们举出的点子来源于研究院而不是工业化学家的头脑，这就是基础的或探索性的研究
Fundamental research is typically associated with university research. It may be carried out for its own intrinsic interest and it will add to the total knowledge base but no immediate applications of it in the “real world” well be apparent. Note that it will provide a valuable 更多精品文档
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training in defining and solving problems, i.e. research methodology for the research student who carries it out under supervision. However, later “spin offs” from such work can lead to useful applications. Thus physicists claim that but for the study and development of quantum theory we might not have had computers and nuclear power. However, to take a specifically chemical example, general studies on a broad area such as hydrocarbon oxidation might provide information which would be useful in more specific areas such as cyclohexane oxidation for the production of nylon intermediates.
基础研究通常与大学研究联系在一起，它可能是由于对其内在的兴趣而进行研究并
且这种研究能够拓宽知识范围，但在现实世界中的直接应用可能性是很小的。请注意，这种以内就在提出和解决问题方面提供了极有价值的训练，比如，在指导下完成研究工作的学生所接受的研究方法学（的训练）。而且，从这些工作中产生的“有用的副产品”随后也能带来可观的使用价值。因此，物理学家宣称要不是量子理论的研究和发展我们可能仍然没有计算机和核能量。不管怎样，举一个特殊的化学方面的例子吧，在各个领域如烃的氧化方面所做的广泛的研究将为一些特殊的领域如环己烯氧化生成尼龙中间产物提供有用的信息。
Aspects of synthesis could involve either developing new, more specific reagents for controlling particular functional group interconversions, i.e. developing synthetic methodology or complete synthesis of an entirely new molecule which is biologically active. Although the former is clearly fundamental the latter encompasses both this and applied aspects. This term ‘applied’ has traditionally been more associated with research out in industrial laboratories, since this is more focused or targeted. It is a consequence of the work being business driven.
通过合成可以生产出一些新的、更特殊的试剂以控制特殊的官能团转换，即发展合
成方法或完成一些具有生物活性的新分子的合成。尽管前者显然属于基础性研究而后者则包括基础研究和实用性研究两部分。所谓“实用性”习惯上是指与在工业实验室完成的研究联系在一起的，因为它更具目的性，它是商业行为驱动的结果。
Note, however, that there has been a major change in recent years as academic institutions have increasingly turned to industry for research funding, with the result that much more of their research effort is mow devoted to more applied research. Even so, in academia the emphasis generally is very much on the research rather than the development.
然而，请注意。近几年有很大的变化，大学研究机构正越来越多地转向工业界寻求研究经费，其结果就是他们的研究工作越来越多地是致力于实用研究。即使这样，学院工作的重点通常还是在于研究而不是开发。
2. Types of Industrial Research and Development
The applied or more targeted type of research and development commonly carried out in industry can be of several types and we will briefly consider each. They are: (ⅰ)product development, (ⅱ) process development, (ⅲ) process improvement and (ⅳ) applications development. Even under these headings there are a multitude of aspects so only a typical example can be quoted in each case. The emphasis on each of these will vary considerably within the different sectors of the chemical industry.
2．工业研究和开发的类型
通常在生产中完成的实用型的或有目的性的研究和开发可以分为好几类，我们对此
加以简述。它们是：（1）产品开发；（2）工艺开发；（3）工艺改进；（4）应用开发；每一类更多精品文档
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下还有许多分支。我们.对每一类举一个典型的例子来加以说明。在化学工业的不同部门内每类的工作重点有很大的不同。
(1)Product development. Product development includes not only the discovery and
development of a new drug but also, for example, providing a new longer-active anti-oxidant additive to an automobile engine oil. Development such as this have enabled servicing intervals to increase during the last decade from 3000 to 6000 to 9000 and now to 12000 miles. Note that most purchasers of chemicals acquire them for the effects that they produce i.e. a specific use. Teflon, or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), may be purchased because it imparts a non-stick surface to cooking pots and pans, thereby making them easier to clean.
(1)产品开发。产品开发不仅包括一种新药的发明和生产，还包括，比如说，给一种汽车发动机提供更长时效的抗氧化添加剂。这种开发的产品已经使（发动机）的服务期限在最近的十年中从3000英里提高到6000、9000现在已提高到12000英里。请注意，大部分的买家所需要的是化工产品能创造出来的效果，亦即某种特殊的用途。Tdflon，或称聚四氟乙烯（PTFE）被购买是因为它能使炒菜锅、盆表面不粘，易于清洗。
(2) Process development. Process development covers not only developing a manufacturing process for an entirely new product but also a new process or route for an existing product. The push for the latter may originate for one or more of the following reasons: availability of new technology, change in the availability and/or cost of raw materials. Manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer is an example of this. Its manufacturing route has changed several times owing to changing economics, technology and raw materials. Another stimulus is a marked increase in demand and hence sales volume which can have a major effect on the economics of the process. The early days of penicillin manufacture afford a good example of this.
（2）工艺开发。工业开发不仅包括为一种全新的产品设计一套制造工艺，还包括为现有的产品设计新的工艺或方案。而要进行后者时可能源于下面的一个或几个原因：新技术的利用、原材料的获得或价格发生了变化。氯乙烯单聚物的制造就是这样的一个例子。它的制造方法随着经济、技术和原材料的变化改变了好几次。另一个刺激因素是需求的显著增加。因而销售量对生产流程的经济效益有很大影响。Penicillin早期的制造就为此提供了一个很好的例子。
The ability of penicillin to prevent the onset of septicemia in battle wounds during the Second World War (1939～1945) resulted in an enormous demand for it to be produced in quantity. Up until then it had only been produced in small amounts on the surface of the fermentation broth in milk bottles! An enormous R&D effort jointly in the U.S. and the U.K. resulted in two major improvements to the process. Firstly a different stain of the mould gave much better yields than the original Penicillium notatum. Secondly the major process development was the introduction of the deep submerged fermentation process. Here the fermentation takes place throughout the broth, provided sterile air is constantly, and vigorously, blown through it. This has enabled the process to be scaled up enormously to modern stainless steel fermenters having a capacity in excess of 50000 liters. It is salutary to note that in the first world war (1914～1919) more soldiers died from septicemia of their wounds than were actually killed outright on the battlefield!
Penicillin能预防战争中因伤口感染引发的败血症，因而在第二次世界大战（1939-1945）更多精品文档