1 Basic Concepts 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word
（The definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.）
1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.
1.3 sound and form ：
1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin
2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly
3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition
4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling all national character 全民性
basic word stock stability 稳定性 obvious 1.4 vocabulary by use frequency 按使用频率分：
基本词汇 productivity 多产性 characteristics basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary polysemy 一词多义 明显的特点 1.5 classification of words 基本词汇和非基本词汇
collocability 搭配性 词汇分类 terminology术语 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 jargon 行话 slang 俚语
argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 by notion 按概念分： neologism 新词 content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.) neutral in style 文体上中性 native words by origin 按起源分： 本地词 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words and borrowed words
denizens 同化词 本地词和外来词
borrowed words
aliens 异形词
外来词
translation-loans 译借词 semantic-loans 借义词
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2 Development
It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. Prussian 普鲁士语
Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Balto-Slavic 波罗的海-斯拉夫语Czech 捷克语 Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语 Eastern set： Russian 俄语 Persian 波斯语 东部诸语族 Indo-Iranian 印度-Bengali 孟加拉国语 伊朗语 Hindi 印地语 Armenian Romany 普吉赛语 亚美尼亚语 Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语
Scottish 苏格兰语
2.1 Indo-European Celtic 凯尔特语 Irish 爱尔兰语
印欧语 Welsh 威尔士语
Breton 布里多尼语
Portuguese 葡萄牙语 Italic 意大利语 Spanish 西班牙语 Western set： French 法语 Latin 拉丁语言
西部诸语族 Italian 意大利语
Roumanian 罗马尼亚语 Hellenic 希腊语—Greek Norwegian 挪威语 Icelandic 冰岛语 Scandinavian languages Danish 丹麦语 斯堪的纳维亚语 Swedish Germanic 日耳曼语 瑞典语
German 德语
Dutch 荷兰语
Flemish 佛兰德语
English 英语 Yiddish 依地语
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50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇
Old English (450--1150) —— Anglo-Saxon Highly inflected 高度曲折 古英语 盎格鲁-撒克逊语 complex endings 复杂的结尾 vowel changes 元音变化
2.2 Historical review Middle English (1150-1500)
French words 法语词汇 历史概述 中古英语 leveled endings 水平结尾 Borrow 借词
Early Modern English (1500-1700) new words 新词 Modern English (1500-up to now) 早期现代英语 no endings 无结尾 现代英语 Late Modern English (1700-up to the present) 晚期现代英语 （from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。 从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言。） the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ％ ） 现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（ 45 ％ ）
2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary three main sources 三种主要来源 social, economic and political changes（11 ％ ） 社会，经济和政治的变化（ 11 ％ ）
the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ％ ） 其它文化和语言的影响（ 24 ％ ）
Creation 创词—— formation of new words, most important 2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development
semantic change 旧词新义—— old form with new meaning, new usages
borrowing 借词—— vital role
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3 Word Formation 3.1 Morphemes 词素
Definition: These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is \.词素是―构词中最小功能单位‖。 3.2 Allomorphs 语素变体
Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning'. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone. 词素是一个音素发音的语素。词素是真正能发音的最小的意义载体。 monomorphemic words：can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. morpheme 单语素词 在句子中独立起作用 allomorphs：the alternative morphs of the same morpheme 词素变体 可替换语素（音标）的相同词素
free morpheme —— free root Independent 独立
自由语素 自由词根 free grammatical units 自由的语法单位 3.3 Types of Morphemes complete meanings 完整的意义
bound root ：fundamental meaning
bound morpheme
粘着语素
粘着词根 基本意义 Inflectional affix —— attached to the end of words 附在词尾 affix 曲折词缀 Grammatical relationships 文法关系 词缀（附加物） attach, modify prefix 附着，修饰
前缀 derivational affix
派生词缀
Suffix
后缀 3.4 Root and Stem The affixation and compounding involve different word-forming elements
affix 词缀
词缀法和混合涉及不同的词语构成因素
root or stem
词根或词干
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4 Word-formation
affixation (30%-40%) 词缀法（30%--40% ）
compounding (28%-30%) 复合法(28% -30% ）
conversion (26%) 转化法（26% ） Word formation clipping 删节
shortening (8%-10%) 缩略法（8% -10%） acronymy 首字母缩略法 构词的方式
blending and other means (1%-5%) 拼缀法和其他方法（ 1 ％-5% ）
prefixation 前缀法 —— before the word, modify the meaning 前置，改词意
4.1 Affixation 词缀法 falls into two subclasses（子类）: suffixation 后缀法 —— after the word, change word class 后置，改词性
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives.
词缀法可定义为通过给词干加结构词词缀或派生词缀构成新词的一种构词方法。用这种方法构成的词叫派生构词。因为通过这种方式创造的新词是从旧词 派生而来。通过这种方式造出的词叫做―派生词‖。 Negative prefixes 否定前缀(a-, an-, dis-, in-, non-, un-) Reversative prefixes 逆反前缀(de-, dis-, un-) Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀(mal-, mis-, pseudo-) Prefixes of degree or size程度大小前缀(arch-, co-, hyper-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, under-, ultra-, super-, sur-)
4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法 Prefixes of orientation and attitude 倾向态度前缀(anti-, contra-, counter-)
（we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis 将前缀分为九类）
into nine groups 我们可以在语义基础上
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 前缀法是在词干上加上前缀构词的一种方法，前缀一般不改变词干的词类，只对词干的意义进行修饰。
Locative prefixes 方位前缀(fore-, inter-, sub-, super-, trans-)
Prefixes of time and order 时间顺序前缀(ex-, fore-, pre-, post-, re-)
Number prefixes 数字前缀(bi-, di-, multi-, poly-, semi-, demi-, tri-, uni-, mono-) Miscellaneous prefixes 多种前缀(auto-, extra-, neo-, paleo-, pan-, proto-, tele-, vice-)
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