a. Concrete 具体名词 –eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-ter 1) Denominal nouns 名词派生来的名词
b.Abstract 抽象名词 –age,-dom,-ery(-ry),-hood,-ing,-ism,-ship
a. The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people, -ant，-ee，-ent，-er（-or） (这组后缀加在动词词干上构成新词，主要表示人，。。。)
Noun suffixes 2) Deverbal nouns 动词派生来的名词 b. Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely 名词后缀 abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc：-al， 3) De-adjective nouns :-ity,-ness -age，-ance，-ation(-ition,-tion,-sion,-ion)，-ence，-ing，-ment 由形容词转化为名词 (这组后缀加在动词词干上，主要构成抽象名词，表示动作、结 果、过程、状态等。。。) 4) Noun and adjective suffixes :-ese,-an,-ist 名词和形容词后缀
1) Denominal suffixes：-ed,-ful,-ish,-less,-like,-ly,-y 4.1.2 Suffixation
名词派生的后缀（加名词后） 后缀法 Adjective suffixes 形容词后缀
2) Deverbal suffixes:-able（-ible），-ive（-ative，-sive）
动词派生的后缀（加动词后）
Adverb suffixes: -ly,-ward (s),-wise 副词后缀 Verb suffixes：-ate,-en,- (i)fy,-ize (-ise) 动词后缀
Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem .Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.
后缀法是在词干加上后缀来构成新词。不像主要改变词干意义的前缀，后缀的只有很小语义作用，其主要功能是改变词干的语法功能。换句话说，他们 主要是改变词性。
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4.2 Compounding 复合法
Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. 复合法，同样也被称作合成法,是指由两个 或者更多的词干相结合而构成的新词，此种方式形成的词被称为复合词。所以，复合词是―由多于一个以上的词干组成的，同时具有一个词的语法功能和意义 功能的词汇单位‖。
4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特征 1).Phonetic features 语音特点 —— first element stress 第一个构词成分重音 Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects: 2).Semantic features 语义特点 —— unity, as one word 统一性，如同个单词 复合词和自由词组不同于三个方面 3).Grammatical features 语法特点 —— single grammatical role 独立的语法作用
Noun compounds 名词性复合词 4.4.2 Formation of Compounds复合词的形成 Adjective compounds 形容词性复合词
conversion 反转
Verb compounds 动词复合词 backformation -er, -ing, -ion 逆序法
(1) State (of mind or sensation) 状态（心理或感觉）
(2) Event or activity 事件或行动
1) Verb to noun (3) Result of the action 行动的结果 动词转名词 (4) Doer of the action 行动的发出者
1.Conversion to noun
(5) Tool or instrument to do the action with 行动的工具 (6) Place of the action 行动的地点 转化为名词 ?
Phrasal verbs to nouns: Keep original order Invert the verb and particle: p+v 动词短语转名词：保持原有顺序， 动词小品词出现反转
(1) Words fully converted
2)
Adjective to noun 完全转化的词 形容词转名词 (2) Words partially converted 部分转化的词
(3) Miscellaneous conversion 多种转化
(1)
To put in or on N
1）Noun to verb (2) 放入名词
To give N or to provide with N (3) 提供名词 To remove N from 4.3 Conversion 转类法 2. Conversion to verbs 名词变动词 (4) To do with N 从……消除名词 (5) 用名词做 ……
To be or act as N
转化为动词
(6) To make or change into N 象名词一样起作用
(7) To send or go by N 变成名词 用名词送去
2）Adjective to verb形容词变动词
3.Miscellaneous conversion （1）Voiceless to voiced consonant 清辅音变浊辅音
混合反转 （2）Initial to end stress 字首重音变字尾重音
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Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class, without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation.
转类法是将一种词类转化为另一种词类构成新词的方法。这些词在语法意义上是新词。既然这些词在形态结 构上不便，只在功能上有变化，这一转类过程也叫做功能转换。一般认为，转类法是单词不添加词缀而直接转化为一个新词的派生构词的过程。这一过程由于不加词缀，所以又称零派生。
4.4 blending 拼缀法，混合词 blends fall into four major groups:
1. head + tail 头＋尾 2. head + head 头＋头
3. head + word 头＋整词 4. word + tail 整词＋尾
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words. 拼缀法是通过合并两个词的某些部分或一个词与另外一个词的另一部分相加起来构成新词。以此种方式构成的词被称作为拼缀词或行囊词。
1. Front clipping 前删（aphaeresis） 4.5 Clipping截短法，删减法 four common types of clipping:
2. Back clipping 后删 (apocopy) 3. Front and back clipping 前后删(
4. syncope 删词腰
5. Phrase clipping 删短语
Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping. 另一个常见的构词法时将原词的一部分截去，只用剩下来的一部分构成新词，这种方法叫截短法。
1. Letters represent full words 字母代表所有词
Initialisms首字母缩略词 2. Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word 字母代表复合词或者只是一个词的几部分 4.6 Acronym 首字母缩词法 （Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. 一个字母一个字母念。） Acronyms 首字母拼音词 （Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.
首字母拼音词是由字母组合在一起作为一个标准单词拼音的词。）
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4.7 Back-formation Abstract nouns 抽象名词
Human nouns 人类名词 逆构法
Compound nouns and others 复合名词和其他
Adjectives 形容词
Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It is a method of forming new words by cutting imagined affixes. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs. 逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过程。由逆构法生成的词多半是动词。
(Formation of new words by removing the supposed suffixes. 通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式 Style: informal 非正式)
names of people 人名
names of places 地名 4.8 words from proper nouns 专有名词转化而来的词
names of books 书名
Style: vivid, impressive, thought-provoking trade names 商业名称 生动，印象深刻，发人深省的
? 定义模式：it‘s the formation of new words by doing…(doing是主要动词，可替换为add, cut, join/combine, change) ? 分类：
1)词的自身长度变化(变形)：加减法 （加：affixation，减：clipping, back-formation） 2)词间组合：整体组合：compound; 部分组合：blending; 字母组合：acronymy
3)词的自身变化:变性:conversion; 变态/变位:words from proper names (普通化/特殊变为普通)
5 Word Meaning 词义 Reference 参照
5.1 Meanings of meaning
Concept 概念
Sense 语感
Words are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. 词只是符号，许多词只有获得参照后才有意义。参照是语言与周围世界的关系。
Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.
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意义与概念有紧密的联系，但并不等同。他们都直接与参照相关，都是词的概念，但属于不同的范畴。
Generally speaking, the meaning of ?meaning‘ is perhaps what is termed ?sense‘. Unlike reference, ?sense‘ denotes the relationships inside the language. Every word that-has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) 一般来说，?意义'的意义也许就是―语感‖ 。不像参照，―语感‖表示的是语言内部的关系。有意义 的每个词都有语感，但并不是每个词都有参照物。 Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据 ：sounds suggest meanings, imitating natural sounds or noises 声音暗指意义，模仿自然的声音 Morphological Motivation 形态理据 ：the meanings are the sum total of the morphemes combined 组合词素的综合 the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word 词的概念所指的精神联系
5.2 Motivation 理据 Semantic Motivation 语义理据 the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense 文字语义和寓意间的联系 the meanings often relate to the origin 与来源有关 Etymological Motivation 词源理据 ：
Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 动机是语言符号和它意义之间的关系。 Grammatical Meaning 语法意义 Conceptual Meaning 5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的类型 1. Connotative meaning 内涵意义 概念意义 Lexical Meaning 2. Stylistic meaning 文体意义
appreciative 褒义
词法的意义 3. Affective meaning 情感意义 Associative Meaning
pejorative 贬义
联系意义 4. Collocative meaning 搭配意义
Word-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different parts. These are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. 词义并非是成分单一的， 而是由不同部分组合的复合物。这些在熟悉的术语中通常称作不同类型的意义。
6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field 语义关系和语义场 polysemy 歧义
sense relations homonymy 同音异义 语义关系 synonymy 同义 antonymy 反义 hyponymy 上下位关系 6.1 Polysemy 歧义
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