by adversely affecting its surface roughness and dimensional accuracy, can cause excessive tool wear, and can result in undesirable metallurgical changes in the material.(工件温度的上升,假如温度过高,将会以平面粗糙度和尺寸精度的不利影响来影响产品质量,而且会导致材料中不需要的相变。) 4. Thermal Conductivity(热传导) Thermal conductivity indicates the rate at which heat flows within and through a material. (热传导表示热量通流过材料的速率。)Metals generally have high thermal conductivity, while ceramics and plastics have poor conductivity.(金属通常有高的热传导,然而陶瓷和塑料有差的热传导。)
When heat is generated by plastic deformation or due to friction, the heat should be conducted away at a rate high enough to prevent a severe rise in temperature. (在热量由塑性变形和摩擦引起的时,热量应该以足够高的速度传递开以防止温度过快升高。)The main difficulty experienced in machining titanium, for example, is caused by its very low thermal conductivity. (在金属钛中主要的问题是由于它的差的热传导。)Low thermal conductivity can also result in high thermal gradients and, in this way, cause inhomogeneous deformation of workpieces in metalworking processes.(差的热传导也能导致高的热梯度,通过这种方式,导致在金属加工过程中产生不均匀的变形。)
5.Thermal Expansion(热膨胀) The thermal expansion of materials can have several significant effects, particularly the relative expansion or contraction of different materials in assemblies such as moving parts in machinery that require certain clearances for proper functioning.(材料的热捧场有一些有益的影响,尤其是在装配中不同材料的热胀冷缩比如机械中得活动件需要特定的空隙来完成特定的功能。)
Shrink fits utilize thermal expansion and contraction. (过盈配合应用了热胀冷缩。)For example, a part, such as a flange, is to be installed over a shaft.(比如,一个零件如法兰,要安装穿过一根轴。) It first is heated and then slipped over a shaft which is at room temperature.(首先将其加热,然后装进室温下的轴。) When allowed to cool, the part shrinks and the assembly effectively becomes an integral component.(当冷却时,零件收缩而且这个实际装配体变成了一个整体部件。)
6. Corrosion Resistance(耐腐蚀性) Metals, ceramics, and plastics all are subject to forms of corrosion. (金属,陶瓷和塑料都受到腐蚀。)The word corrosion itself usually refers to the deterioration of metals and ceramics, while similar phenomena in plastics generally are called degradation. (腐蚀这个词本身指的是金属和陶瓷的退化,然而在塑料中类似的现象叫做降解。)Corrosion leads not only to surface deterioration of components and structures but also reduces their strength and structural integrity.(腐蚀不仅导致部件和结构平面的破坏而且减小了结构的强度和完整性。)
Corrosion resistance is an important aspect of material selection for applications in the chemical, food, and petroleum industries, as well as in manufacturing operations. (耐腐蚀性在化学,食物和石油工业材料选择中是一个重要方面,生产制造中也一样。)In addition to various possible chemical reactions from the elements and compounds present, environmental corrosion of components and structures is a major concern, particularly at elevated temperatures and other transportation vehicles. (另外,多种可能的由元素,化合物,部件结构环境腐蚀引起的化学反应是主要考虑的,尤其是在高的温度和其他运输工具上。)
Resistance to corrosion depends on the composition of the material and on the particular environment. (耐腐蚀性取决于材料组成和所处的特殊的环境。)Corrosive media may be
chemicals (acid, alkalis, and salts), the environment (oxygen, moisture, pollution, and acid rain), and water (fresh or salt water).(腐蚀介质可以是化学品(酸,碱,盐),环境(氧气,水,污染物和酸雨)和水(淡水和盐水)。) Nonferrous metals, stainless steels, and nonmetallic materials generally have high corrosion resistance, Steels and cast irons usually have poor resistance and must be protected by various coatings and surface treatments..(有色金属和非金属材料通常有高的耐腐蚀性,钢和铸铁常有较差的耐腐蚀性而且必须通过各种膜和表面处理来防止腐蚀。)
The usefulness of some level of oxidation is exhibited in the corrosion resistance of aluminum, titanium, and stainless steel.(某种程度的氧化用于铝,钛和不锈钢的耐腐蚀性。) Aluminum develops a thin (a few atomic layers), strong, and adherent hard-oxide film (Al2O3) that better protects the surface from further environmental corrosion.(铝形成一层薄(几个原子层)而强的紧贴的Al2O3膜,它能更好地防止平面被进一步地腐蚀。) Titanium develops a film of titanium oxide (TiO2).(钛形成了一层TiO2膜。) A similar phenomenon occurs in stainless steels, which (because of the chromium present in the alloy) develop a protective film on their surfaces. (不锈钢应用了类似的现象,在它表面形成了一层保护膜(由于合金中铬的出现)。)When the protective film is scratched and exposes the metal underneath, a new oxide film begins to form.(当保护膜被刮伤那么下面的金属暴露出来,一个新的氧化膜开始形成。)
12 Spindle Bearings
(陈鹏文,有错包含)
A machine tool spindle must provide rotational speed, transfer torque and power to the cutting tool, and have reasonable load carrying capacity and life.
(机床主轴必须提供转速、传递力矩和公路到切削工具上,而且具有一个合理的负载承受能力和寿命。)The bearing system, one of the most critical components of any high-speed spindle design, must be able to meet these demands or the spindle won’t perform.(轴承系统,是任何高速主轴设计中最需要主要考虑的部件之一,它必须能够满足这些需要或者是主轴不能实现的需要。)
High-speed spindle bearing available today include roller, taper roller, and angular contact ball bearings.(当今可以用的高速主轴轴承包括滚珠轴承、锥型滚柱轴承和径向止推滚珠轴承。) Selection criteria depend on the spindle specifications and the speed needed for metalcutting.(选择标准依靠主轴规格和金属切削所需的速度。)
Angular contact bearings are the type most commonly used in very high-speed spindle design. (径向止推轴承在超高速主轴设计中是用得最普遍的。)These bearings provide precision, load carrying capacity, and the speed needed for metalcutting.(这些轴承提供精确度,伏在承受能力和金属切削所需的速度。) Angular contact ball bearings have a number of precision balls fitted into a precision steel race, and provide both axial and radial load carrying capacity when properly preloaded.(径向止推轴承有许多安装在精确钢槽里的精确滚珠,在正确安装下提供轴向和径向的负载承受能力。)
In some cases, tapered roller bearings are used because they offer higher load carrying capacity and greater stiffness than ball bearings. (在某些情况下,锥型滚珠轴承被用是因为它能提供较滚珠轴承更大的负载承受能力和更大的刚度。)However, tapered roller bearings do not allow the high speeds required by many spindles.(然而,锥型滚柱轴承不能保证许多主轴需要的高的速度。)
Angular contact ball bearings are available with a choice of preloading magnitude,
typically designated as light, medium, and heavy.(径向止推滚珠轴承可以选择预装载大小,典型的有轻载型,种载型和重载型。) Light preloaded bearings allow maximum speed and less stiffness. These bearings are often used for very high-speed applications, where cutting loads are light.(轻载型轴承能保证最大速度和较小的刚度。这些轴承通常在超高速,切削力小的的情形下应用。)
Heavy preloading allows less speed, but higher stiffness.(重载型轴承可以保证较低速度,较高刚度。) To provide the required load carrying capacity for a metalcutting machine tool spindle, several angular contact ball bearings are used together. (为了给机床提供金属切削所需要的负载承受能力,一些径向止推滚珠轴承被结合使用。)In this way, the bearings share the loads, and increase overall spindle stiffness.(用这种方法,轴承分担负载,而且提高了整个主轴的刚度。)
Hybrid ceramic bearings are a recent development in bearing technology that uses ceramic (silicon nitride) material to make precision balls.(混合的陶瓷轴承是在轴承科技中最近发展起来的,是利用陶瓷(氮化硅)材料制做精确的滚珠。) The ceramic balls, when used in an angular-contact ball bearing, offer distinct advantages over typical bearing-steel balls(应用于径向止推滚珠轴承中的陶瓷滚珠提供了较钢珠轴承中钢珠明显的优点。).
Ceramic balls have 60% less mass than steel balls.(陶瓷滚珠质量不到钢珠的60%。) This is significant because as a ball bearing is operating, particularly at high rotational speeds, shape of the ball. (这是有意义的,因为一个转动的滚珠轴承尤其是在高速旋转中,滚珠的形状会发生变化。)This deformation leads to rapid wear and bearing deterioration.( 这种变形会导致快速的磨损和轴承的破会。)Ceramic balls, with less mass, will not be affected as much at the same speed. (陶瓷滚珠具有较小的质量,在相同速度下陶瓷滚珠受到影响不如钢珠大。)In fact, the use of ceramic balls allows up to 30% higher speed for a given ball bearing size, without sacrificing bearing life.(事实上,利用陶瓷滚珠可以保证给定尺寸的滚珠在超过30%速度上工作而不牺牲轴承寿命。)
Due to the nearly perfect roundness of the ceramic balls, hybrid ceramic bearings operate at much lower temperatures than steel ball bearings, which results in longer life for the bearing lubricant. (由于几近完美圆度的陶瓷滚珠,混合的陶瓷轴承工作在较钢珠轴承低得温度,这些导致在轴承润滑中有较长的寿命。)Tests show that spindles utilizing hybrid ceramic bearings exhibit higher rigidity and have higher natural frequencies, making them less sensitive to vibration.(实验表明主轴利用混合陶瓷轴承体现出更高的刚度个更高的固有频率,使主轴对振动不那么敏感。)
Bearing lubricant is necessary for angular contact ball bearing to operate properly.(轴承润滑在径向止推轴承正确工作中是必要的。) The lubricant provides a microscopic film between the rolling elements to prevent abrasion. (润滑剂在转动零件间提供了一层微观模来防止磨损。)In addition, it protects surfaces from corrosion, and protects the contact area from particle contamination.(另外,它还防止平面腐蚀,保护接触平面受磨粒影响。) Grease is the most common and most easily applied type of lubricant.(润滑油脂是在润滑剂中最普遍最简单的应用方式。) It is injected into the space between the balls and the races, and is permanent. (它被注射到滚珠和滚槽之间的缝隙中,是永久的。)Grease requires minimal maintenance.(润滑油脂需要最小的维护。) Generally, high-speed spindles utilizing grease lubrication do not allow replacement of the grease between bearing replacements. (通常情况下,高速主轴应用油脂润滑不能保证润滑油脂在轴承替换件中的替换。)During a bearing replacement, clean grease is carefully injected into the bearing.(在
轴承替换中,情节的油脂是小心地注射到轴承中。)
Often at high rotational speeds, lubrication with grease is not sufficient. (通常在高转速中,油脂润滑是不够的。)Oil is then used as a lubricant, and delivered in a variety of ways.(那么油液就用作为润滑剂,以多种方式传递。) Maintenance of the lubrication system is vital, and must be closely monitored to ensure that proper bearing conditions are maintained. (润滑维护系统式非常重要的,而且必须严密检测来保证维护中正确的轴承维护条件。)Also, use of the correct type, quantity, and cleanliness of lubricating oil is critical.另外,正确的用法,用量和润滑油清洁度也重要。 How much life can be expected?(预测寿命是多长呢?) All bearings will have a useful life, defined as operation time until the bearing specifications are lost, or a complete failure of the bearing occurs. (所有的轴承都将有一个使用寿命,被定义为从工作开始时间到轴承规格破坏时间或者到轴承完全地实效。)The most common cause of bearing failure is fatigue, in which the races become rough, leading to heating, and eventual mechanical failure. (导致轴承失效的最普遍的原因是疲劳,在疲劳状态下滚槽变得粗糙导致摩擦热和最终的机械故障。)Bearing life, in general, is affected by axial and radial bearing loads, vibration levels, lubrication quality and quantity, maximum speed, and average bearing temperature. (通常情况下,轴承的寿命受轴向和径向的负载、振动程度、润滑质量、最高速度和平均轴承温度影响。)From these influences, bearing life can be calculated from standard equations. (由于这些影响,轴承寿命能通过标准方程来计算。)Today, computer models are often used to forecast bearing life.(现在,计算机模型经常用于预测轴承寿命。)
14、机构的基本概念
一些有关联的部分综合起来能够实现一定运动并能完成有用的工作叫做机器。一个机构是一个由两个以上的部分装配成的机器的一个组件以实现一个部件的运动带动其他部分运动。运动学是研究机构的运动而不涉及施加在机构上的力。动力学是研究运动的部分和受力和力矩影响的机构。研究静止系统的力和力矩叫做静力学(或者说是惯性影响对系统是微不足道的)。
综合分析是设计产品以满足一定的性能需求的一个步骤,如果一个产品配置先初步指定,然后检查产品以确定是否他的性能规格是否能满足需要。这个过程叫分析。机器的设计包括综合和分析两个方面。
设计过程开始于先认识到一些需求,然后一部分需求被列出来,详细的分析位移、速度和加速度经常是必须的,这部分设计步骤是在力和力矩的分析之后。这个设计步骤可能包括了重新设计那些影响速度、加速度、力和力矩的部件。为了一年又一年的有竞争力,大多数制造者必须被反复的修改他们的产品和他们的制造方法。增加生产率,升级产品功能,重新设计使造价和重量降低是常常需要的,成功可能取决于这个运动学和动力学的分析的精确性。
许多基本的连接配置已经被列入机械设计之内几个世纪前,我们用的一些术语改变了很多年,因此,这些定义和术语在大多数情况下,他的意义可以清晰地从上下文的关联中猜出来,一些术语尤其是和我们研究机械的运动学和动力学有关的将在下面被定义。
杆件: 一个杆件是一种刚体或者许多部分组成在一起形成一个的运动链。这个术语刚体或者简单杆件,是被理想化了的用作研究那些忽略由于机器组件间拉力所产生的微小变形的机构。对于典型的机器部分,在直径上最大的改变只与这部分的千分之一相似,我们忽略掉微小的运动当考虑大多数机构更大的运动特征时是合理的。这个单词link被用作除了曲柄、连杆和一些其他的铰接机构之外的一般的定义包括凸轮、齿轮和其他的机器部分。
机架:在机构中固定的或者静止的杆件叫做机架,当没有杆件实际上被固定时,我们假
设一个固定然后决定其他部分杆件相对于这个固定杆件的运动。例如,在汽车发动机上,引擎装置被考虑成固定的,尽管汽车可能在运动。
自由度:连接杆自由度的数量是指定每一个杆件关于机架或固定杆件的位置所需要的独立参数的数目。如果一个系统的瞬间配置可能完全被定义根据一个独立的变量,这个系统有一个自由度,大多数实际的机器都有一个自由度。
按个自由的刚体有六个自由度,在三个直线方向移动和三个轴方向转动,如果物体仅限于在一个平面内移动,那么他就只有三个自由度,两个移动方向和一个在这个平面内的转动方向。
高副和低副:刚体之间连接组成基本的高副和低副,这两个基本的构建组成低副理论上是面接触,而高副在两个构件间使点接触或者线接触。
运动链:运动链是一个运动副和杆件的组合体,每一个杆件在闭环运动链中都和其他两个或者更多的杆件关联,一个一个没有形成闭环的连接就是开环运动链。
联动装置:由于我们希望去检查运动链而不考虑他最终的应用,那是非常方便的去确定许多组合关于刚体连接成联动装置,在许多参考书中,无论怎样,这个术语linkage是仅限于由低副组成的运动链。
平面运动和品面连杆机构:如果所有的点如果可以被描述为一个平面联动。如果我们检查这个联动机构由曲柄、连杆和在活塞发动机中的活塞组成,我们把它看做是平面运动,大多数机构通常都可以被看做平面运动。
空间运动和空间连杆机构:大多数情况下运动不能被描述成发生在同一平面上的我们称作空间运动,连杆机构可能被描述成空间的或者散文的机构装置。
机构变换:一个连杆机构的绝对运动取决于哪个连杆是固定的,换言之,那个杆件被选作固定的机架,如果其他两个相等的连杆机构有不同的固定杆件方式,那么每一个连杆机构都是一个的倒置,在两种连杆机构中关系运动将相同。
16、磨损与润滑
磨损可以被定义为材料从工作表面逐渐损失以在工作表面相对运动的形式。摩擦发生在有负载还有表面接触且运动的地方,因此在工程实践中是非常重要的,是机器寿命和性能的最大影响因素。摩擦的组要集中形式有:
粘着磨损:当两个表面由于加载而互相靠在一起,整个接触载荷作用在面积很小的表面凸起的接触面。真正的接触压力在凸起部分是非常大的,粘着磨损就发生在这些地方。如果一个切向力作用于模型如图fig.16.1,剪切可以发生在接触面或接触面下面或上方,造成粘着磨损。例如以下因素:机械硬化发生在凸起的接触部分,粘着力往往比基本金属大很多。因此,在滑动中,破碎通常发生在较弱或软组件,并产生磨损碎片。虽然这个碎片属于较硬组件(如图16的上表面)最终由于接触面的进一步摩擦使碎片分离,并成为松散的磨粒。 磨料磨损:这种磨损的方式是硬的粗糙的表面相对于另一表面的运动(表面有硬的凸起的颗粒),最后产生细小的磨削,因此在较软的表面留下沟槽或者划痕(如图16.2).事实上,过程如同锉、磨的方式。不同的是,在这些过程中,过程参数用来通过磨损控制生产出想要的形状和表面,然而磨料磨损得到的不是计划想得到的产品。
腐蚀磨损。也被称为氧化或化学磨损,这种类型的磨损由于化学或电化学反应在工件表面和环境之间。这些在工件表面形成的细小腐蚀性产物就是这种磨损生成的磨粒。当腐蚀层被破坏或移动通过工件的滑动,另一层也开始形成,这样磨损成反复的移除和形成。
疲劳磨损:疲劳磨损是材料表面受到交变荷载;这方面的一个例子是轴承的滚动接触。磨损颗粒通常是通过剥落或点蚀。另一种类型的疲劳磨损是热疲劳。通过热循环的热应力在表面产生裂纹,比如当一个冷锻模热反复作用工件时。这些裂缝先结合然后表面开始剥落,产生疲劳磨损。